Illegal methamphetamine production occurs in countries throughout the world; however, only methamphetamine produced in the United States, Mexico and, to a lesser extent, Southeast Asia is available in any significant quantity in the United States. There are no conclusive worldwide methamphetamine production estimates, nor are there conclusive production estimates for the three principal methamphetamine source areas that supply U.S. drug markets. Nevertheless, laboratory seizure data suggest expanded domestic methamphetamine production, while law enforcement reporting and limited laboratory seizure data indicate a significant increase in methamphetamine production in Mexico.
Methamphetamine Production Methods
Ephedrine/Pseudoephedrine Reduction
Hydriodic acid/red phosphorus. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, hydriodic acid, and red phosphorus. This method can yield multipound quantities of high quality d-methamphetamine.
Iodine/red phosphorus. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, iodine, and red phosphorus. The required hydriodic acid in this variation of the hydriodic acid/red phosphorus method is produced by the reaction of iodine in water with red phosphorus. This method yields high quality d-methamphetamine and typically is used when hydriodic acid supplies are limited.
Iodine/hypophosphorous acid. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, iodine, and hypophosphorous acid. The required hydriodic acid in this variation of the hydriodic acid/red phosphorus method is produced by the reaction of iodine in water with hypophosphorous acid. Known as the hypo method, this method results in a high yield of d-methamphetamine and usually is used only when the producer in unable to acquire red phosphorus, although it can be used also when hydriodic acid is in limited supply. The iodine/hypophosphorous acid method is particularly dangerous, often resulting in fires and explosions because of phosphine gas produced during the methamphetamine production process.
Birch. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, anhydrous ammonia, and sodium or lithium metal. Also known as the Nazi method, the Birch method typically yields ounce quantities of high quality d-methamphetamine and typically is used by independent producers.
Phenyl-2-propanone
P2P. The principal chemicals are phenyl-2-propanone, aluminum, methylamine, and mercuric chloride. This method yields lower quality dl-methamphetamine, has been associated with outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMGs), and is commonly referred to as the P2P method.
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Domestic methamphetamine production occurs in clandestine laboratories that range in capacity from a few ounces to 50 pounds per production cycle. Low capacity laboratories are operated throughout the United States primarily by local independent methamphetamine users; the number of such laboratories appears to be increasing. Large-scale laboratories that yield bulk quantities of methamphetamine are typically operated by Mexican criminal groups in California.
New Mexico Laws Targeting Methamphetamine Production Enacted
On July 1, 2004, two New Mexico State laws that are intended to reduce methamphetamine production and the exposure of children to methamphetamine laboratory hazards went into effect. The first, House Bill (HB) 112, allows for a child abuse charge against anyone who exposes a child to the production of a controlled substance or allows a child to enter or remain in any building containing chemicals and equipment used to produce a controlled substance. Suspected violators will be charged with a third-degree felony on the first offense and a second-degree felony on the second or subsequent offense. If such exposure results in bodily harm or death of the child, the individual will be charged with a first-degree felony. The second law, HB 111, provides the Board of Pharmacy with the authority to add substances to the list of drug precursors and increases penalties for possession, manufacture, or transportation of drug precursors without a license from a misdemeanor to a fourth-degree felony on the first offense.
Source: New Mexico State Legislature.
NDTS data indicate expanding methamphetamine production. According to NDTS 2004 data, 49.6 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide describe the level of methamphetamine production in their areas as high or moderate, up slightly from 48.8 percent in 2003. At the same time, the percentage of agencies reporting that methamphetamine is not produced in their areas decreased from 23.2 percent in 2003 to 21.5 percent in 2004. A much higher percentage of agencies in the Pacific (76.1%), Southwest (75.1%), West (74.3%), and Southeast Regions (67.1%) report high or moderate methamphetamine production in their areas than agencies in the Midwest (46.4%) or Northeast (9.9%) Regions.
NCLSS data also indicate widespread domestic methamphetamine production. According to NCLSS, methamphetamine laboratory seizures were reported in 46 states in 2003; more laboratory seizures were reported in the Midwest Region (3,038) than in the Southeast (2,847), Southwest (1,874), Pacific (1,460), West (820), or Northeast Regions (143). NCLSS data further show that there has been a steady increase in the number of reported laboratory seizures since 1999 (see Figure 10) and that reported seizures increased in eastern states but decreased in many western states. From 2002 to 2003 the number of reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures increased in the Southeast (1,906 to 2,847), Midwest (2,540 to 3,038), and Northeast Regions (94 to 143), but declined in the Pacific (1,738 to 1,460) and West Regions (1,078 to 820).
Figure 10. Methamphetamine laboratory seizures, number reported, 1999-2003.
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Source: National Clandestine Laboratory Seizure System.
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Reported seizures of high capacity superlabs, those capable of producing 10 or more pounds of methamphetamine per production cycle, have decreased, likely contributing to the decline in total methamphetamine laboratory seizures in western states. NCLSS data show that reported seizures of superlabs decreased sharply from 246 in 2001, to 144 in 2002, and 133 in 2003. Despite declines in reported laboratory seizures in the Pacific, most seizures of superlabs still occur in that region, particularly in California. Of the 133 reported superlab seizures in 2003, 128 were reported in California.
Law enforcement reporting and laboratory seizure data indicate that most superlabs in California are controlled by California- and Mexico-based criminal groups and are located in southern and central California. According to Los Angeles HIDTA reports, four southern California counties (Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino) accounted for 55.8 percent (475 of 851) of the reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in California in 2003 including 43.0 percent (55 of 128) of reported superlab seizures. The Central Valley HIDTA reports that nine central California counties (Fresno, Kern, Kings, Madera, Merced, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, and Tulare) accounted for 20.5 percent (175 of 851) of the reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in California including 43.0 percent (55 of 128) of reported superlab seizures.
HIDTA reporting indicates that Mexican criminal groups, some based in the Los Angeles area, often travel to rural or remote areas of southern and central California to produce methamphetamine, subsequently returning to the Los Angeles area to distribute the drug. Many of the groups maintain close family and social ties with individuals in Culiacán and Michoacán, Mexico, to recruit laboratory workers who come to California for a few months to produce methamphetamine and then return to Mexico.
Methamphetamine Superlab Seized
On February 7, 2004, agents from the Stanislaus Drug Enforcement Agency, California Multijurisdictional Methamphetamine Enforcement Team, and Central Valley HIDTA arrested five Mexican nationals and seized an operational methamphetamine laboratory located in a residence in Modesto. Authorities had received information that several men who were staying at the residence had acquired large amounts of chemicals used to manufacture methamphetamine. Agents observed the residence for about a week and, after observing several men taking supplies commonly used to produce methamphetamine into the residence, obtained a search warrant. Shortly after the warrant was obtained, agents observed a suspect loading garbage bags into the backseat of his car before leaving the residence. The suspect was followed until he was away from the residence, when officers stopped his vehicle. A search of the vehicle revealed two garbage bags containing 80 pounds of ephedrine. The driver was arrested and charged with manufacturing methamphetamine and possession of a controlled substance for sale. After his arrest, agents prepared to serve the search warrant on the residence. Just prior to entering the residence, four suspects were observed fleeing. Three suspects were captured, arrested, and charged with manufacturing methamphetamine, criminal conspiracy, and resisting arrest. The fourth suspect was found in a trailer located on the property; he was arrested and charged with manufacturing methamphetamine, criminal conspiracy, battery on a police officer, and resisting arrest. Inside the residence agents found evidence of methamphetamine manufacture in every room. They seized over 300 gallons of alcohol, 96 pounds of red phosphorus, 80 pounds of ephedrine, and several weapons. This laboratory was the largest ever seized in Stanislaus County.
Source: Stanislaus County Sheriff's Department.
Low capacity laboratories, those capable of producing less than 1 pound per production cycle, represent an even greater proportion of seized laboratories since the number of superlab seizures has declined in recent years. For example, low capacity laboratories accounted for 83.4 percent (7,667 of 9,192) of all seized laboratories in 2002 and 91.3 percent (9,297 of 10,182) in 2003.
Law enforcement reporting indicates that most methamphetamine production in central and eastern states occurs in low capacity laboratories operated by independent producers using the Birch or red phosphorus methods. NCLSS 2003 data show that of the 6,028 methamphetamine laboratories seized in the Midwest, Northeast, and Southeast Regions, 94 percent were small, mobile laboratories capable of producing less than 9 ounces of methamphetamine per production cycle. Every HIDTA office in the Midwest, Northeast, and Southeast Regions, with the exception of the Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands HIDTA, reports that most local methamphetamine production is conducted by local independent producers using either the Birch or red phosphorus methods. Only the Philadelphia/Camden HIDTA reported that OMGs in its area produce methamphetamine via the P2P method as well.
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Law enforcement reporting and seizure data show that methamphetamine produced in Mexico and Southeast Asia, as well as in Canada, is available to varying degrees in U.S. drug markets; however, only Mexican methamphetamine is smuggled into the United States in quantities adequate for national-level distribution.
Mexico. Mexico is the principal source of foreign-produced methamphetamine available in the United States. There are no conclusive estimates as to the amount of methamphetamine produced in Mexico; however, an interagency working group estimated that the amount of Mexico-produced methamphetamine seized in the United States was 0.97 metric ton in 2001 and 1.1 metric tons in 2002, the most recent year for which such data are available. Law enforcement reporting indicates that methamphetamine production in Mexico is considerable, and there is wide consensus among law enforcement agencies that production in Mexico has increased significantly since 2002, yet few data are available to confirm this assertion other than an apparent increase in methamphetamine seizures at or between land POEs along the Southwest Border (see Transportation section). According to DEA, most methamphetamine production in Mexico occurs in the southwestern states of Colima, Michoacán, Jalisco, and Guerrero and in the northern states of Baja California and Sonora. The hydriodic acid/red phosphorus method is the primary method of production in Mexico; however, the P2P method is also commonly used.
Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian criminal groups produce large quantities of ice methamphetamine in laboratories located primarily in China and, to a lesser extent, the Philippines, Taiwan, and South Korea. According to DEA, Chinese criminal groups manufacture multikilogram quantities of ice per production cycle in mobile laboratories located in eastern and southeastern provinces of China. Most ice produced in China is intended for domestic distribution; China-produced ice also supplies drug markets in other Asian countries and the United States, particularly in the Philippines, Hawaii, and Guam.
Burmese criminal groups are the principal producers of methamphetamine tablets in Southeast Asia. Intelligence reports indicate that Burmese criminal groups produce several hundred million methamphetamine tablets annually for distribution in drug markets in Thailand, China, and India. According to DEA, some shipments of methamphetamine tablets from Burma have been received by ethnic Hmong and Laotian individuals primarily in the Sacramento area. However, there are no reliable seizure data regarding Burma-produced methamphetamine tablets en route to the United States or any reliable estimates as to the amount of Burma-produced methamphetamine tablets available in the United States. Methamphetamine tablet production also has been reported in Malaysia and Fiji; however, there are no estimates as to the amount of methamphetamine tablets produced in those countries nor are there specific reports of methamphetamine tablets produced in Malaysia or Fiji available in the United States.
Canada. The amount of methamphetamine produced in Canada is relatively low compared with the United States; however, production levels in Canada may be increasing. According to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the amount of methamphetamine produced in Canada primarily by Canada-based OMGs, Asian criminal groups, and independent traffickers is increasing, as evidenced by an increase in the number of reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in Canada from 13 in 2001, to 25 in 2002, and 39 in 2003. RCMP reporting also indicates that the amount of Canada-produced methamphetamine seized en route to the United States has increased since 1998; however, there are no quantifiable data to support this assertion. In fact, EPIC data show that the amount of methamphetamine seized at or between POEs along the Northern Border is low and decreased from 3.3 kilograms in 2002 to 0.2 kilogram in 2003.
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Most operators of high capacity methamphetamine laboratories in the United States and Mexico produce the drug by utilizing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, precursor chemicals produced in China, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Switzerland, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are shipped from these production countries throughout the world to the United States, Canada, and Mexico for legitimate use. However, some ephedrine and pseudoephedrine is diverted from the intended legitimate purpose by criminal groups for use in illicit methamphetamine production, particularly in California and Mexico.
Since the late 1990s, most operators of domestic superlabs have produced methamphetamine using bulk quantities of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine tablets diverted from Canada. Middle Eastern (Armenian, Jordanian, Lebanese, Syrian, and Yemeni) criminal groups and other individuals based in Canada and the United States purchase pseudoephedrine tablets in bulk--often in the millions--from legitimate wholesale chemical distributors in Canada and smuggle the tablets across the Northern Border in private and commercial vehicles through or between land POEs such as Detroit and Port Huron in Michigan. The tablets usually are transported to stash sites in the United States before being distributed to methamphetamine producers for use in high capacity laboratories, particularly those located in central and southern California. Pseudoephedrine diversion groups also transport smaller shipments of diverted ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from Canada to methamphetamine producers in the United States via mail services and, to a lesser extent, via couriers on commercial flights.
Recent anecdotal law enforcement reporting indicates that more domestic superlabs are producing methamphetamine using ephedrine or pseudoephedrine diverted from Asia. According to DEA, recent legislation in Canada designed to reduce ephedrine and pseudoephedrine diversion appears to have led many methamphetamine laboratory operators in the United States--particularly operators of high capacity laboratories--to begin using bulk quantities of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine obtained from sources in Asia but usually smuggled into the United States via Mexico. Moreover, several law enforcement operations have been successful in reducing the availability of pseudoephedrine tablets smuggled into the United States from Canada. In fact, law enforcement reporting indicates that seizures of Asia-produced pseudoephedrine products at methamphetamine superlabs in California have increased. For example, the Los Angeles County Regional Criminal Information Clearinghouse reports that pseudoephedrine products manufactured in Hong Kong have been seized at several clandestine methamphetamine laboratory sites in California since 2002. In addition, in February 2004 the Stanislaus Drug Enforcement Agency discovered a methamphetamine laboratory with three large trash bags containing empty 1,000-tablet bottles of Asia-produced pseudoephedrine. Such seizures previously were very uncommon.
Asian pseudoephedrine products also are used at methamphetamine laboratories in Mexico. Law enforcement reporting indicates that multiton quantities of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are transported each year to Mexico and that some are illegally distributed to methamphetamine producers by criminal groups. For example, law enforcement reporting indicates that between April 2002 and July 2004 nearly 80 undocumented shipments of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine were transported from Hong Kong to Mexico via the United States, Panama, or Europe for subsequent distribution to methamphetamine producers in southwestern Mexico.
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